Bibliography
Becker, Howard. "Effects of Alcohol
Dependence and Withdrawal on Stress Responsiveness and Alcohol Consumption."
Alcohol Research. 34.4 (2012): 11. Web. 3 Nov. 2013.
The article written by Howard Becker
provides information that there is a direct correlation between alcohol
dependence and stress. If a person depends on alcohol to reduce stress they
will soon be dependent on alcohol and find when they don’t have it they go into
a withdrawal. Alcohol can help reduce stress because it has anxiety reducing
properties, however it can also create an imbalance amongst the hormones
created by the hypothalamus. Alcoholism is on the rise because more and more
people (especially in college students) are becoming more reliant on alcohol as
a stress reducer, which they soon become dependent on and have to have it on a
daily basis.
This source describes how alcohol
can affect you and why so many people are becoming reliant on alcohol in there
daily lives. By looking at how stress and alcoholism are directly related one
can begin to see why so many have begun to abuse alcohol. Chronic alcohol
exposure directly affects the reward circuitry in the brain and escalates your
alcohol consumption as well as alcohol dependence.
Howard Becker has a Ph.D. in
psychiatry and Behavioral science, and is a professor at the Medical University
of South Carolina and the head of the Department of neuroscience. He has
written over fifty peer reviewed articles that have been published in Alcohol Research and Science Magazine. He is considered to be
one of the leaders in the study of alcoholism and its effect on the human body,
especially looking at the brain. His article is unbiased and gives only facts
about the rising problem of alcohol dependent people, and why the numbers are
growing. Becker is a researcher that has conducted hundreds of experiments and
always has data and research to back up his claims. In this article in
particular he also includes footnotes and other hyper links that show you the
background research done on the topic. The Magazine that this article is
published in is also a credible source; the magazine has been publishing
scientific articles on the effects of alcohol since the early nineties. All
articles are peer reviewed for content as well as the author’s credibility.
Edenberg, Howard. "Genes
Contributing to the Development of Alcoholism." Alcohol Research.
34.3 (2012): 336-338. Web. 3 Nov. 2013.
Howard Edenberg describes that the
rise in alcoholics can be due partly to our genes. Some genetic factors can
account for some of the risk of alcoholism, although finding the specific gene
is a difficult process. Using family studies have accounted for most of the
data gathered in this article, the scientists examine a family where alcoholism
is present and see if any specific genes are special to the person who is
dependent on alcohol compared to the rest of the family.
Scientists have found that
alcoholism is a disease that can be treated but can also be passed down through
genes to younger generations. However, it is not a singular gene or even a
group of genes. Researchers have found that the disease is the interaction
between certain genes; there are in fact hundreds of them that may or may not
have an effect. Also the impact of a certain gene depends on the person’s
genetic history as well as their environment. One test used is the genome-wide
association test, which looks at a large set of variations in the genes across
an entire genome to see its exact effect related to alcoholism.
Howard Edenbergs’ area of study
focuses on regulation of gene expression, genetics of complex disease,
molecular biology of alcoholism. He got his B.S. in 1968, followed by is M.S.
in 1970, then his Ph.D. in 1973, and lastly had two post-doctorals that went
from 1973-1977. The authors credibility seems to be sufficient enough just by
looking at his educational background however he is also a professor of
biochemistry and molecular biology at the Indiana university school of medicine,
and also is the director of center for medical genomics. His work on genes
related to alcoholism has laid the groundwork for other researchers to look at
a whole new cause of alcoholism that come straight from our own genes. His
article was also published in Alcohol
Research in 2012.
Onciu, Mihai, and Anastasia Iordache.
"Legal and Forensic Issues for Chronic Alcoholism." Acta Medica
Transilvanica. 18.2 (2013): 309-311. Print.
Because alcohol has similar effects
to that of drugs and can come at a cheaper price, as well as being easier to
access makes it one of the most abused substances today. Alcoholism is a
disease that affects not only physical, but also the mental and emotional state
of the user. However not only does it effect the alcoholic themselves but also
society as a whole; one out of two murders, one out of four suicides, one out
of every three road accidents, all of these are due to alcohol. People who are
more commonly associated with alcohol are more frequently involved in fights,
and long-term alcoholics can even lose the ability to control their emotions.
The article focuses not only on the
alcoholics themselves but how they can affect society as a whole. Alcoholics
tend to overreact in situations, and use alcohol as a way to bury their bad
emotions. This simply makes the feelings lay in wait until the next time they
start drinking then they simply let all the negativity out at once, usually
resulting in feelings of guilt and depression which leads to poor choices being
made that are often illegal acts. Alcohol related crimes have been growing
non-stop for the past decade and have shown no signs of even plateauing. These
crimes committed are not only affecting the alcoholic themselves, but their
friends, family, and society as a whole.
The authors are both from
Transylvania, Mihai is a forensic pathologist, and Anastasia is a psychosocial
researcher looking at relationships between alcohol and its affects on society.
Both have been on the topic of alcoholism since they got their M.D.’s, and have
found countless examples of how alcohol abuse is the most widespread addiction
in the world today. This article was published in the Acta Medica Transilvanica,
which is a journal that
is published quarterly with peer-reviewed articles that present recent research
results in public health and management. The site looks very credible and has
all its information on the home page as well as copyright information and links
to all its background data, including contact information and process for
submitting an article.
Gunzerath, Lorraine, et al.
"Alcohol Research: Past, Present, And Future." Annals Of The New
York Academy Of Sciences 1216.1 (2011): 1-23. Academic Search Complete.
Web. 10 Nov. 2013.
This article
introduces the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA),
which was founded to better understand, treat, and prevent future effects of
alcoholism. This institution was created in 1970 in accordance with the Hughes
act that states the sole purpose of the NIAAA is to solve all alcohol related
problems, and try to better prevent these causes in the future. They helped to
develop Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and showed that through rehabilitation
alcoholics can recover. The NIAAA along with the American Psychiatric
Association were the first to declare that alcoholism is in fact a disease and
is an escalating problem for today’s generation.
This article is
important because it talks about how alcoholism is a problem and how a solution
is trying to be found. The NIAAA was created in 1970 with the focus on
alcoholism and how to stop the increasing number of alcohol related problems,
since the number is still rising we are still trying to find a solid solution
to the problem. It also focuses on alcoholism as a disease through Epidemiology
(the study of causes) and describes the medical, psychological, social, legal
consequences.
The
article was published in Annals
Of The New York Academy Of Sciences; this is a science academic
journal that focuses on providing multiple perspectives on research of present
day scientific interest. Lorraine Gunzerath is a researcher at the National
Institute Of Health, and has her degree in psychology focusing on personality
psychology. Brenda Hewitt works as the assistant director at the Residential Mental Health and Substance Abuse Facilities,
and has been studying the effects of alcohol on the liver as well as other
organs for almost a decade. Kai Li is a researcher at a substance abuse
hospital, looking at how alcohol affects cognitive functions. Kenneth Warren
works for the NIAAA and focuses his time on bettering public-acceptance of
alcohol-use disorders.
"Alcohol Abuse And The Law." Harvard Law Review
94.7 (1981): 1660. Academic Search Complete. Web. 10 Nov. 2013.
This
article describes some solutions to the increasing number of alcoholics;
specifically how to lower the number of drunk drivers, and other alcohol
related incidents. The article suggests two solutions either increase the
penalty or increase the likelihood of apprehending the alcohol abusers. In the
case of drunk drivers, big fines, license revoking, and even jail time are
already some punishments put in place by our laws today. However because of
sympathetic juries some still get off with punishments like community service,
not being consistent with punishments makes the punishment itself less
effective. While they could also increase the number of arrests and likelihood
of getting caught drunk driving. This is what some states have begun to do,
cracking down on drunk drivers everywhere which will make people be more
responsible with alcohol.
This
article is relevant because it looks at some solutions that we have tried and
failed, but also some ones that we haven’t tried yet that could be effective.
The article suggests that through educating people may help reduce the number
of people suffering from alcoholism. Not only this but they also describe how
being stricter on our punishments, such as increased fines or increased jail
time. Also making sure that any law they enforce is also fair and
constitutional to the people, for instance if they were going to impose a law
suggesting random stops and searches of cars some may say its unconstitutional
according to the fourth amendment that defends against unreasonable search and
seizure.
The
Harvard Law Review is an academic
peer edited journal that publishes articles of; professors, judges and other
recognized experts. It is a reliable source because all articles in the journal
are all related to the law and portray the laws accurately. The article was a
combination of multiple articles and research all compiled into one work about
alcohol abuse in relation to the law.
Chaiyasong, Surasak, et al. "Impacts Of Excise Tax Raise On
Illegal And Total Alcohol Consumption: A Thai Experience." Drugs:
Education, Prevention & Policy 18.2 (2011): 90-99. Academic Search
Complete. Web. 10 Nov. 2013.
This
article describes how the Thai government raised the excise tax on certain
liquors, in an attempt to cut down alcohol consumption, and alcohol related
issues. The experiment was conducted on two rural towns over a six-month
period. What the researchers found was a immediate decrease in alcohol related
issues because the people who spent all they had on alcohol could no longer
afford it. A negative was that, in one of these towns illegal manufacturing of
alcohol started. This led to arrests and punishments for almost all involved
parties, this could also be a positive to the cause because people saw that the
government was reinforcing their law with strict punishment. Once the people
became more responsible with the alcohol the excise tax was reduced again, but
they were told if it became a problem again the tax would again rise.
This article is an example of a
successful solution to the rise of alcoholism. This is part of what I’m
proposing in my paper, as a solution to the rise of alcoholism in America, if
we impose an excise tax on liquor people wont be able to be as reliant on it.
This will help stop the high dependence people have on alcohol, just as it did
in the two rural villages. The Thai government imposed this tax on brandy,
blended, and white spirits, and the decrease in consumption was very obvious.
This comes from a peer reviewed
academic journal that focuses on multi-disciplinary papers on the prevention of
substance abuse. Surasak Chaiyasong in the Thai federal government as a public
administer. While Jon Schommer was an alcoholic beverage wholesaler, in the
rural village. Supon and Chulaporn Limwattananon also worked in the federal
government as municipal and public administers.
Salize, Hans Joachim, et
al. "Treating Alcoholism Reduces Financial Burden On Care-Givers And
Increases Quality-Adjusted Life Years." Addiction 108.1 (2013):
62-70. Academic Search Complete. Web. 10 Nov. 2013.
This article
was written on the effect an alcoholic has on their primary caregiver and the
results a fully recovered alcoholic had on that caregiver. The caregiver burden
was assessed both before and twelve months after the rehabilitation took place.
They also looked at the quality of life for both the caregivers as well as the
alcoholics. It shows that having an alcoholic in the family not only affects
them but also the entire family.
Alcoholism is
just like any other substance addiction in that the person addicted will do
whatever it takes to get there next “fix.” This article shows how much money
they spend and that even when they run out they still bum it off their family
to get it. The average family saved 676 dollars a month before treatment down
to twenty dollars after. Not only did they save money, but the families also
went from spending 32.3 hours caring for the affected before treatment to only
8.2 hours. These statistics speak for themselves in that they show that not
only can alcoholism be cured for the alcoholic but also the whole family can be
affected in a positive way if the rehabilitation works.
This section
was printed in Addiction, a peer
edited academic journal that was first published in 1993. Focusing on major
papers, reviews, and news about various forms of addiction. Hans Salize is a
German researcher/psychologist, who focuses on mental disorders as well as the
effects of alcohol on mental state. Christian Jacke is a German doctor who is a
specialist in cardiology (deals with diseases and abnormalities of the heart)
and angiology (studies of diseases of the circulatory and lymphatic system).
Sven Kief and Michael Franz are both doctors at substance abuse hospitals.
Khan, Sharaf, et al.
"Gender Differences In Lifetime Alcohol Dependence: Results From The
National Epidemiologic Survey On Alcohol And Related Conditions." Alcoholism:
Clinical & Experimental Research 37.10 (2013): 1696-1705. Academic
Search Complete. Web. 10 Nov. 2013.
The article
focuses on the difference in gender and their reliance to become dependent on
alcohol. In it researchers found that men are more likely to develop a disorder
involving alcohol such as alcohol dependence. While women are more likely to
develop mood or anxiety disorders, yet these disorders can increase the chance
of alcoholism, but the numbers are still greater when it comes to males.
When comparing
the numbers of males and females suffering from alcoholism in America and even
worldwide its obvious that there are more males than females. Researchers
looked at differences in psychiatric and medical comorbidities (the
simultaneous presence of two chronic diseases), risk factors, and treatment
utilization patterns. They found that women sought out treatment more often
than males, and that males were at a much higher risk for developing a
addiction or dependence on alcohol. There were however no gender differences
for remission rates, and they found that women who were alcoholics had a higher
chance to also have another family member being an alcoholic.
Alcoholism:
Clinical & Experimental Research is a
peer-reviewed journal that focuses only on alcoholism and related issues. It’s
published by Blackwell publishing and has been published annually since 2003.
Sharaf Khan is the director at a residential mental health and substance abuse
facility in Turkey. Mayumi Okuda got her
Ph.D. in psychiatry and worked at the New York state psychiatric institute
before going to the department of internal medicine. Carlos Blanco is a Professor of Clinical Psychiatry at Columbia University College
of Physicians and Surgeons and Research Scientist in the Anxiety Disorders
Clinic at New York State Psychiatric Institute. He focuses on the combination
of medicine and psychotherapy as a treatment for alcoholics.
Janssen, Meriam M., et al. "Effectiveness Of Alcohol
Prevention Interventions Based On The Principles Of Social Marketing: A
Systematic Review." Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention & Policy
8.1 (2013): 1-11. Academic Search Complete. Web. 11 Nov. 2013.
The
articles main focus is on the overall prevention of future substance abuse,
especially when it comes to alcohol. It explains how working to educate the
public on the rising problem of alcoholism isn’t enough to stop it but it lays
a solid foundation to work off. The article also provides another solution, by
using social marketing that involves integrating marketing concepts with other
concepts that will help influence an individual or communities for the greater
social good. They concluded at the end of the study that they could not
accurately say that the social marketing technique actually had positive
effects on alcoholism, because of inconclusive data.
Social
marketing is described through eight principles: customer
orientation, insight, segmentation, behavioral goals, exchange, competition,
methods mix, and is theory based. When the research team took other studies
conducted about alcoholism they received over 270 experiments and academic
journals, however only six of those studies had the right guidelines to fit
into the experiment and out of the six none completely showed the eight
principles listed above. This is why the scientists concluded it was
inconclusive due to lack of data. These results showed that although they
didn’t come up with a solid solution they still had a hypothesis to test and if
social marketing could be applied to alcoholism and combined with educating
people on the effects of alcoholism there may be a possible answer.
Substance
Abuse Treatment, Prevention & Policy is a peer reviewed academic journal that focuses on substance abuse and
addiction. It was first published by BioMed Central in 2006 and has released
two issues. Meriam Janssen works in the Tranzo department at the scientific
center for care and welfare in the Netherlands, she works mainly on substance
abuse applied to alcoholism. Henk Garretsen is a professor in health care
policy at Tilburg University. These authors are both specialists in their
fields and have done appropriate research to back up the claims they make in
the paper, which they also site.
Demers, Andrée, Nancy Beauregard, and Louis Gliksman.
"College Alcohol-Control Policies And Students' Alcohol Consumption: A
Matter Of Exposure?." Contemporary Drug Problems 40.2 (2013):
191-214. Academic Search Complete. Web. 11 Nov. 2013.
The
article concentrates specifically on the effects of alcohol consumption as a
minor and the long-term effects it has, especially on college students. The
National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, found that educating kids
about the effects of alcoholism in the later years of college isn’t soon
enough. Some schools in America have begun to include educating children as
young as fifth grade on the effects alcohol can have on your body both
physically and mentally. The hope is to make the younger generations better
understand the risks of drinking even when they are old enough to do it
legally.
Researchers
asked children from sixth grade all the way to there early college years about
what they new about alcohol and its effects. They found that the lack of actual
education had indirectly reinforced the praise that media puts on alcohol. Now
we see alcohol in our daily lives from movies to television shows to even
commercials advertising the specific drink. This is similar to when smoking was
on the rise; when kids see there favorite actors drinking some whiskey at the
end of a scene, or a character in a TV show crack open a beer, they think that
it is not only something that is socially acceptable but something they are expected
to do. Now in college some say that drinking is something that is expected of
you, but not just have a drink or two, but binge drink every weekend. This puts
the students at an incredibly higher risk of becoming alcohol dependent
especially if the students drink to relieve stress.
Contemporary Drug Problems is
a peer reviewed academic journal, it was first published by Federal Legal
Publications from 1999 too present day. Its primary focus is substance abuse
and addiction, publishing articles dealing with legal aspects of contemporary
drug problems. Andree Demers is a sociologist at the university of Montréal,
and conducted multiple experiments that helped find the information on the
general knowledge of students on alcoholism. Nancy Beauregard is an assistant
instructor of Andree at the university of Montréal concentrating mostly on
personal relations and sociology. Louis Gliksman is a senior scientist in
the Social and Epidemiological Research Department at the Centre for Addiction
& Mental Health. He is also a Professor at the Dalla Lana School of Public
Health at the University of Toronto and is a Mentor in the Social Aetiology of
Mental Illness (SAMI) Trainin
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